Appendix I
1. What are some effective strategies for supporting educational initiatives focused on conflict prevention?
Formal education holds significant influence in shaping and perpetuating cultural norms within a society. Thus, integrating peace education into formal schooling becomes crucial for fostering peacebuilding initiatives. This integration aligns with educational objectives aimed at tackling global challenges and their localized impacts, proving especially effective in aiding state-led initiatives in post-conflict environments.
An example is the work being done in Colombia or in Kenya where a peace education programme was introduced in 2008 against the backdrop of disputed presidential elections and subsequent post-election violence.By integrating peace education into formal and informal learning settings, Colombia has seen positive outcomes such as reduced levels of violence, increased community dialogue, enhanced social cohesion, and improved conflict resolution skills among youth.The peace education program in Kenya also has contributed to creating a more peaceful and inclusive society. It has empowered young people to become agents of change, promoted interethnic dialogue and understanding, and reduced the potential for election-related violence in subsequent electoral cycles.
Peace education efforts in the Philippines address various forms of violence including the direct/physical, structural, socio-cultural and ecological. The work is supported by the Office of the Presidential Adviser on the Peace Process(OPAPP),which helps establish partnerships with public and private schools and non-governmental organizations in promoting and implementing peace education. Several formal mandates have supported these efforts, including the Department of Education Order No. 44 (2005), “Declaration of Schools as Zones of Peace.” Executive Order No. 570 (2006), supports the “Institutionalization of Peace Education in Basic Education and Teacher Education in the Philippines.”In 2019 the “Bangsamoro Organic Law” was established, stipulating that peace education shall be integrated in all levels of education in the Bangsamoro territory. Also in 2019, the Commission on Higher Education issued a memorandum that called upon higher education institutions to offer peace studies and peace education either as an elective or integrated in relevant higher education subjects.
Though there are currently no measurement effects to these efforts for now, which would require collaboration across disciplines, which takes time to develop, the integration of peace education reflects a proactive approach to conflict transformation, reconciliation, and sustainable peacebuilding, and sets a positive example for peacebuilding efforts nationwide.
2. How do leadership development programs that prioritize conflict resolution skills, contribute to fostering effective global diplomacy and cooperation?
For successful mediation, the leaders of involved parties must garner sufficient internal cohesion and support for compromise solutions within their political structures and among their populations. Negotiating within the realm of national interests involves balancing competing state interests or identifying shared interests that can form the basis of agreements despite conflicting ones. This approach was notable during the Cold War, where negotiations aimed to prevent military clashes between major powers like the United States and the Soviet Union. For instance, negotiations during the Cuban missile crisis and the development of confidence-building measures to prevent accidental nuclear war were rooted in the shared interest of reducing confrontation risks leading to nuclear conflict. Such negotiations progressed due to the ability to identify common interests that transcended or partially mitigated conflicting ones.
3. What are some challenges that arise when attempting to foster inclusive dialogue and mediation, and how can these challenges be overcome?
Peace efforts are not always successful, they face a lot of challenges along the way. Despite numerous peace talks in cities like Geneva and Astana for Syria and international mediation efforts, achieving lasting ceasefires and political settlements has been difficult due to the involvement of regional and global powers backing different factions. This has led to prolonged violence and exacerbated humanitarian crises. Diverging interests among key stakeholders, fragmented opposition groups, lack of trust, and ongoing hostilities have all contributed to the challenges in reaching sustainable peace agreements. Despite these obstacles, continued international efforts, multilateral initiatives involving key actors, and empowering local stakeholders are crucial for advancing peace agendas and addressing root causes of conflicts.
To help meet these challenges, international and regional organizations have to recognize the need to improve the effectiveness of their mediation efforts. They need to provide their mediators with expert support, with an emphasis on helping mediators make peace processes more inclusive, especially with regard to the participation of women and civil society, and on strengthening national and local mediation capacities. They have to acknowledge the importance of developing cooperation, coordination and partnerships among international, regional and sub-regional organizations, as well as with NGOs and other actors involved in mediation.
To increase the effectiveness of mediation, several organizations created specific mediation-support structures. In 2006, the UN Secretary General (UNSG) established a Mediation Support Unit in the Department of Political Affairs and, in 2008, created a Standby Team of Mediation Experts deployable within three days in support of UN mediation efforts. In 2009, the Council of the EU adopted a Concept on Strengthening EU Mediation and Dialogue Capacities. In 2011, a Mediation Support Team was created within the European External Action Service.
The UN Mediation Support Unit and Standby Team of Mediation Experts played a crucial role in supporting the peace process in Nepal. They provided technical expertise, facilitated dialogue between the government and Maoist rebels, and helped draft agreements on key issues such as disarmament and integration of rebel fighters into the national army.
During the post-election crisis in Côte d'Ivoire, the UN Mediation Support Unit and Standby Team of Mediation Experts supported mediation efforts led by regional organizations and helped broker a political agreement between rival factions, leading to the restoration of stability and democratic governance.
The EU Mediation Support Team, working in coordination with other international partners, provided technical and logistical support to mediation efforts that culminated in the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) between the Sudanese government and the Sudan People's Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A). The CPA ended decades of civil war between north and south Sudan, paving the way for South Sudan's independence in 2011.
The success of the Dayton Accords in ending the Bosnian War illustrates the effectiveness of mediation in bringing together leaders from Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia to negotiate a peace agreement. Through diplomatic efforts and structured negotiations facilitated by international mediators, key issues were addressed, including territorial boundaries, governance structures, and disarmament. This mediation process, supported by international oversight, helped build trust and prevent a relapse into conflict, showcasing the power of diplomatic interventions in resolving complex conflicts and fostering lasting peace.
4. How does the active involvement of respected international mediators enhance the credibility and effectiveness of dialogue and negotiation processes in high-stakes conflicts?
Mediation usually commences with thorough pre-negotiations where key elements such as the negotiation framework, agenda, process, and primary participants are established. In various contexts, formal mediation processes benefit from informal efforts. These informal endeavors can play a vital role in reinitiating official negotiations following breakdowns or deadlocks by fostering confidence, enhancing relationships, and proposing ideas for formal political discussions. As conflicts endure, they tend to grow more intricate, involving a broader range of issues, actors, and third-party mediators and facilitators engaged in dialogue.
The settlement process of the Transdniestrian conflict in Moldova consists of formal political negotiations in the so-called “5+2” format. The ‘five’ consist of the co-mediators (the OSCE, Russia and Ukraine) and the sides to the conflict (Moldova and Transdniestria). The 'two’ consist of the observers (the European Union (EU) and the United States (US)). The format also includes joint working groups that bring together the sides in order to build confidence. This format is accompanied and supported by informal efforts facilitated by international and national non-governmental organizations with the political, financial and sometimes operational support of the individual participating States.The "5+2" format used in the Transdniestrian conflict is indeed unique to that particular situation. However, there are other multilateral negotiation formats used in various conflict resolution processes around the world. These formats often involve a combination of key parties, mediators, observers, and working groups. Here are a few examples of such formats in different contexts such as:
Quartet on the Middle East: Comprising the United Nations, the European Union, the United States, and Russia as mediators and observers in efforts to facilitate peace negotiations between Israel and the Palestinians.
Six-Party Talks: Involving North Korea, South Korea, China, Japan, Russia, and the United States in negotiations aimed at addressing nuclear disarmament and peace-building on the Korean Peninsula.
5+1 Talks: Involving Cyprus, Greece, Turkey, and the United Kingdom as guarantor powers, plus the United Nations, in negotiations to address the longstanding division of Cyprus.
5. Can early warning systems and mechanisms identify potential conflict hotspots and trigger early intervention measures?
Addressing conflicts early, before they escalate into violence or become deeply entrenched, is crucial for effective resolution. During the initial stages of a conflict, mediation and dialogue facilitation can be highly effective tools due to their flexibility and cost-effectiveness, bridging the gap between early warnings and proactive measures. Preventive diplomacy encompasses actions by senior diplomats or politicians from international bodies or states, often involving quiet diplomacy or shuttle diplomacy. Non-governmental organizations and respected individuals also play roles in these efforts. The timelier these preventive actions are taken, the greater the likelihood of successful conflict prevention.
In 1994, the High Commissioner on National Minorities (HCNM) undertook proactive preventive diplomacy in Ukraine. This involved fostering dialogue between the Ukrainian central Government and Crimean authorities, who sought unification with Russia. The HCNM's efforts, backed by the OSCE Mission to Ukraine at the time, led to a compromise on Crimea's autonomy in 1995-1996.
6. How can social media platforms be effectively utilized as tools for promoting
peacebuilding and fostering dialogue among diverse communities?
Social media is often viewed primarily as a means of communication, but its role as a listening tool is equally significant. For mediators and their teams, social media proves immensely valuable for gathering information about events that receive little coverage or face censorship in traditional media channels. It enhances situational awareness by revealing aspects of conflicts that conventional political analyses may overlook. These insights encompass evolving narratives surrounding conflict events, diverse groups' perspectives on key issues, influential stakeholders and their interconnections, power dynamics, and the propagation of rumors, disinformation, defamation, and hate speech through various campaigns. Incorporating these insights into existing conflict analyses enhances mediators' readiness and effectiveness.